Cuba has one of the most restrictive media environments in the world. The formal media sector is owned and controlled by the state, and the constitution prohibits privately owned media. The country’s independent press operates outside the law, its publications are considered “enemy propaganda,” and its journalists are routinely harassed, detained, interrogated, threatened, defamed in the official press, and prohibited from traveling abroad. Government agents regularly accuse them of being mercenaries and even terrorists, and many face charges of “usurpation of legal capacity,” “diffusion of false news,” or other vaguely defined offenses. Journalists at state-owned outlets engage in similar discourse when discussing dissidents; in April 2021, television presenter Humberto López called for members of the MSI and 27N artist collectives to be charged with “treason against the homeland,” a capital offense. The government closely monitors and persecutes perceived dissidents within the artistic community, mainstream artists, and media figures who air independent or critical views. In May 2021, authorities forcefully entered the home of MSI member Luis Manuel Otero Alcántra—who began a hunger strike over the seizure and destruction of artwork in April—and sent him to a hospital. Otero was discharged at the end of May but was arrested on July 11, as protests were held nationwide. Otero held another hunger strike between late September and mid-October. In mid-May 2021, MSI cofounder Maykel Castillo Pérez was detained by the authorities and was charged with crimes including “resistance” and “contempt.” Castillo, who coproduced and performed the antigovernment song “Patria y Vida” (“Homeland and Life”) along with Otero, began a hunger strike in late October while held at Pinar del Río prison. Both Otero and Castillo remained in detention at year’s end. Journalists and artists were exiled or were otherwise prohibited from returning to Cuba during 2021. In March, opposition journalist Karla Pérez González, who was traveling to the country from Costa Rica, was denied entry. Costa Rica granted Pérez refugee status in August. In June, artist and 27N member Hamlet Lavastida was arrested and accused of instigating a crime for communicating with other members of the collective. Lavastida and his partner, poet Katherine Bisquet, were both exiled from Cuba in September. Cuba has one of the most restrictive media environments in the world. The formal media sector is owned and controlled by the state, and the constitution prohibits privately owned media. The country’s independent press operates outside the law, its publications are considered “enemy propaganda,” and its journalists are routinely harassed, detained, interrogated, threatened, defamed in the official press, and prohibited from traveling abroad. Government agents regularly accuse them of being mercenaries and even terrorists, and many face charges of “usurpation of legal capacity,” “diffusion of false news,” or other vaguely defined offenses. For example, in September 2020, journalist Roberto Quiñones completed a one-year prison sentence after refusing to pay a fine for “resistance” and “disobedience” in custody; he had initially been arrested and beaten while covering a trial for the news website CubaNet. Decree Law 370, enacted in 2019, bans Cuban citizens from hosting their writings on foreign servers—including social media platforms like Facebook—and prohibits the circulation of “information contrary to the social interest, morals, good customs, and integrity of people.” Authorities increased their use of the law against independent journalists during 2020, subjecting dozens of individuals to arbitrary arrests, fines, or confiscation of their devices. The crackdown frequently included threats against the journalists’ families as well as pressure to delete and discontinue their critical coverage of the government. In addition to independent journalism, the government closely monitors and persecutes perceived dissidents within the artistic community, and has increasingly turned its attention to more mainstream artists and media figures who air independent or critical views. Members of the artists’ collective MSI—formed in response to Decree Law 349 of 2018, which requires Ministry of Culture approval for public and private cultural activities and bans artistic content based on ill-defined criteria such as harm to “ethical and cultural values”—were repeatedly harassed and intimidated during 2020. After rapper Denis Solís was arrested, tried, and sentenced to eight months in jail for “contempt of authority” in November, fellow MSI members organized protests and a hunger strike. The movement’s headquarters, at the Havana home of artist Luis Manuel Otero Alcántara, was besieged by the authorities, who ultimately raided the house and detained 14 people, citing violations of pandemic-related health restrictions. The next day, on November 27, a larger group of artists, writers, and supporters held a sit-in protest at the Culture Ministry, prompting the government to offer negotiations. Officials soon reneged on their promises, however, and in December the regime carried out a wave of extralegal house arrests, arbitrary detentions, and mob violence against leading independent journalists and artists associated with the movement. Some also had their phone and internet service cut off, and state media conducted smear campaigns against key journalists and outlets. The intensified repression during 2020 was driven in part by the expansion of mobile internet service in recent years, as many Cubans have used their access to share independent news and information, criticize government performance, and post popular hashtags associated with protests and dissidents. Solís was notably detained after posting a video on social media in which he confronted a police officer who had entered his home. Score Change: The score declined from 1 to 0 due to an increase in the government’s use of detentions, house arrest, fines, harassment, and other reprisals to suppress independent journalism and expressions of dissent among artists and writers.
Cuban Revolution, armed uprising in Cuba that overthrew the government of Fulgencio Batista on January 1, 1959. The revolution’s leader, Fidel Castro, went on to rule Cuba from 1959 to 2008. As a result of the Spanish-American War, control of Cuba passed from Spain to the United States on January 1, 1899, and it was governed by direct U.S. military administration until May 20, 1902. During these years, Cubans filled more public offices than they had under Spanish rule, and much was done for public works, sanitation, and education. Most notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries. A constitutional convention met at Havana from November 5, 1900, to February 21, 1901. The constitution that was adopted contained certain provisions known as the Platt Amendment; these were imposed by the U.S. as a condition for accepting the constitution and were approved by Cuba on June 12, 1901. By these provisions Cuba promised not to incur debts its current revenues could not bear, to continue the sanitary administration undertaken by the U.S. military government, to lease naval stations to the U.S., and, if necessary, to permit the U.S. to intervene in order to preserve Cuban independence and a government adequate to protect life and property. Tomás Estrada Palma In May 1902 Tomás Estrada Palma became the first president of the new republic, and material prosperity came to certain segments of the Cuban population. This was due to a reciprocal trade treaty, requested by the outgoing U.S. authorities, that permitted more Cuban sugar to enter the U.S. Sugar exports would dominate the Cuban economy throughout the first half of the 20th century, and the U.S. was Cuba’s chief trading partner.
Fight for the title of War Wiz with this quiz on famous conflicts throughout history. Estrada Palma’s administration attempted to implement progressive measures, but it was plagued by instability. His party, the Conservatives (later known as the Moderates), emerged victorious in the elections of December 1905, but the opposition Liberals accused the government of rigging the vote. This charge, along with widespread pension fraud and the failure to bring about proposed governmental reforms, triggered a revolution in July 1906. The insurrection spread rapidly, and Estrada Palma requested intervention by the U.S., which sent commissioners to mediate. The mediation failed, Estrada Palma resigned, and on September 29, 1906, U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt named his secretary of war, William Howard Taft, governor of Cuba. Taft proclaimed that he would lead a provisional government to last “long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence.” Government was maintained under the Cuban flag, regular constitutional forms remained outwardly unchanged, and the insurrectionists promptly disbanded. U.S. administration ceased on January 28, 1909, and the republic was inaugurated a second time. U.S. troops were withdrawn on April 1, 1909. Three presidents governed Cuba from 1909 to 1925 with little distinction and much corruption. They were José Miguel Gómez (1909–13), Mario García Menocal (1913–21), and Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso (1921–25). During this period the U.S. interfered twice in Cuba and threatened to intervene several more times. During the Gómez administration the country prospered, but charges of corruption in the government rose. The government was accused of giving few offices to Afro-Cubans and also of favouring those who had supported the Spanish cause in the war for independence. Protests by Afro-Cubans against a law prohibiting political organization by race or religion led to a bloody government crackdown that claimed the lives of thousands. The Liberal party split, and in the election of 1912 the Conservative candidate, Menocal, won. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now Menocal’s administration oversaw much material progress, but with prosperity came new charges of government corruption, including accusations of nepotism. Menocal won reelection in 1916 by employing fraud and violence, and, as a result, war broke out against him in February 1917. The rebels had hoped for intervention by the U.S., but it was too occupied with the situation in Europe, and Menocal was able to put down the rebellion. Menocal’s government declared war on Germany on April 7, 1917, the day after the U.S. entered World War I. Gerardo Machado y Morales Until 1919 Cuba enjoyed phenomenal prosperity, thanks to the high price of sugar. By 1920, however, a severe financial crisis had struck the country, and, despite a moratorium, many banks and other business concerns went bankrupt. Zayas introduced financial reforms and was given a $50 million loan by the U.S. in January 1923. The economic situation rapidly improved, but charges of corruption against Zayas intensified, and revolts broke out against him, led in part by war veterans. When Zayas tried to get himself renominated, he ran into stiff opposition from his own party. He therefore made a pact with the Liberal candidate, Gen. Gerardo Machado y Morales, against Menocal, who ran as the Conservative candidate in the election of 1924. Machado was elected overwhelmingly and assumed office on May 20, 1925. He was to become Cuba’s first full-fledged dictator. Pledged to a program of reform, he made good only a few of his promises during his first term. With the beginning of his second term, in 1928, a rule of terror began. Martial law was proclaimed, and Congress allowed him to suspend freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Political opposition, allayed by an adroit distribution of patronage in 1928, revived against Machado as the economic depression of the early 1930s hit Cuba. An attempt to stabilize the price of sugar, always the mainstay of Cuba’s economy, failed, and no substantial relief came from a public-works program. As the opposition increased, Machado adopted increasingly harsher methods against it. Cuban exiles fled to the U.S., and, as violence intensified, the U.S. offered to mediate. An amnesty was declared, and constitutional and political reforms were promised. With the economic crisis deepening and with Machado apparently determined to stay in office in spite of promises to resign, the army forced him to flee the country in August 1933. Fulgencio Batista Cuba had many presidents in the following years, but they were usually made and unmade by Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar, a sergeant who gained control of the army at the time of Machado’s downfall. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuban revolutionary leader Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, was the first president to serve on a provisional basis. He set aside the constitution and tried to bring about modest reforms, but critics feared that he was too closely allied to the U.S. He was overthrown after just a few months, and Ramón Grau San Martín was installed in his place. Grau San Martín’s attempts at reform were also short-lived, and his four months in office were characterized by bloody strife. A military junta, headed by Batista, then conferred the presidency on Col. Carlos Mendieta, who seemed to have the approval of most factions. The U.S. and other countries granted him prompt recognition. Under the auspices of U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy, a treaty was concluded in June 1934 that abrogated the Platt Amendment. That document, which had been issued to preserve peace, had had the opposite effect, as discontented factions had frequently risen against Cuban governments in order to bring about U.S. intervention. It also had been used by such leaders as Zayas to get the people to support them as champions of Cuban liberty against U.S. aggression. Disorder and strikes continued, but Mendieta and his chief of staff, Batista, used dictatorial measures and postponed elections until December 1935. Batista continued to rule Cuba through two presidents—Jose Barnet y Vinageras (December 1935–May 1936) and Federico Laredo Brú (December 1936–October 1940). Miguel Mariano Gómez y Arias was elected in May 1936 but served only to December. Ramón Grau San Martín In 1940, Batista, then a colonel, undertook his own candidacy and defeated Grau San Martín. During his presidential term, 1940–44, Cuba entered World War II on the side of the Allies and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Batista’s candidate, Carlos Saladrigas y Zayas, ran in 1944 but was defeated by Grau San Martín, and Batista soon left the country. Grau San Martín’s administration began with much emphasis on “political house cleaning” but failed to achieve any kind of concrete reform. Carlos Prío Socarrás became president in 1948, but his ambitious domestic agenda stalled in the face of economic troubles and government corruption. Batista, a candidate for the June 1952 election, anticipating his defeat, overthrew the government in March without bloodshed. He closed Congress and called for elections in 1954. He was elected president without opposition for a four-year term beginning February 24, 1955. He reinstated the 1940 constitution, which contained many liberal pro-labour reforms, and tried to return the country to normalcy, but strong opposition developed against him. Among the primary concerns of large landowners was the Sugar Act of 1956, U.S. legislation that sharply curtailed Cuban sugar imports to the benefit of domestic producers. With Cuban sugar exports facing an uncertain future, support for Batista within both the government and the influential agriculture industry virtually collapsed. Militant anti-Batista elements denied the validity of the 1955 election and organized a campaign of harassment and sabotage in the provinces. Chief among these groups was the 26th of July Movement under the leadership of the charismatic revolutionary leader Fidel Castro. |
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